“Tell all my friends in Washington good-by. Tell President Cleveland, my friend, good-by. Mother, love all my people; protect them; they are your children; you are their mother." - We’wha
In pre-colonial America, numerous Indigenous communities recognized a spectrum of gender identities beyond the binary, each with unique terms and associated roles. Within the Zuni tribe, which originated in a region now known as New Mexico, the term Lhamana was used for those born biologically male who took on social and ceremonial roles usually performed by women. Historically, Lhamana were described using both masculine and feminine pronouns interchangeably, and individuals typically wore a mixture of both traditionally women's and men's clothing. Like other Indigenous roles, the Zuni Lhamana existed as part of a unique cultural framework, which Indigenous scholars assert goes beyond mere sexual orientation or adherence to conventional gender norms, including modern concepts of transgender or genderqueer identities. In 1990, the term Two-Spirit (also two spirit, 2S or two spirited) was devised as a modern umbrella to describe Indigenous people who fulfilled gender-variant roles in their cultures. Perhaps the most notable Lhamana in history–now also recognized as a significant Two-Spirited figurehead–was We’wha, who as a ceremonial leader, cultural ambassador and expert craftsperson helped preserve the Zuni way of life, and who in 1886 made a lasting impression in Washington, D.C. when they met personally with President Grover Cleveland.
We’wha was born into the Zuni tribe circa 1849 to a mother who belonged to the Donashi:kwe Clan (Badger People) and a father who was part of the Bichi:kwe Clan (Dogwood people). Around the time of We'wha’s birth, the Zuni had just begun interacting with American colonists, with whom they at first aligned against rival tribes to engage in territorial battles. The colonists, however, introduced smallpox into the Zuni tribe and in 1853 both of We’wha’s parents succumbed to the illness. We’wha and their brother were then adopted by their aunt on their father’s side into a family that was both wealthy and influential among the Zuni. Their position in the tribe offered We’wha opportunities to take part in revered cultural rituals and from an early age We’wha received a special ceremonial education.
At first, We’wha partook in ceremonies typically reserved for Zuni boys, but was fairly quickly recognized to be a Lhamana. We’wha’s training was then taken over by female relatives who began to teach them many traditional women’s roles, including grinding and making corn meal, cooking, and crafting pottery. We’wha trained in particular for years to master the many elements of pottery making, taught by a kinswoman who was considered an expert ceramicist.
Simultaneously, We’wha also continued to take on many traditionally male roles. They became a skilled weaver, learning a variety of different looming techniques to create blankets, sashes, and belts. As a craftsperson, We’wha was recognized for their immense talents, and in fact was among the first Zuni to sell their pottery and textiles, helping to spread both Indigenous art and culture. In addition to being an expert craftsperson, We’wha also became a master of Zuni lore and ceremonies as a member of both the men’s kachina society, which performed ritual masked dances, as well as the medicine society known as Beshatsilo:kwe.
By the 1870s, We’wha had also been working as a farmer, another traditionally male role, but began to take on more household duties as their adoptive mother grew older. In 1877, Protestant missionaries arrived to the Zuni territories as part of President Grant’s “Peace Policy,” which aimed to assimilate the Indigenous people into American society by indoctrinating them into Christianity. During this time, the Lhamana, including We’wha, were imprisoned, but the Zuni quickly fought back for their freedom. After getting released, We’wha walked 40 miles back to their reservation and simply returned to their normal life of making pottery, weaving, and leading ceremonies.
In 1879, We’wha was taking care of the young daughters of Protestant missionaries when they met an anthropologist named Matilda Coxe Stevenson who, alongside her husband, was on an expedition collecting artifacts and recording the customs of the Zuni people for the newly formed Bureau of Ethnology. Stevenson was captivated by We’wha’s deep understanding of Zuni culture and ability to quickly pick up on English, and frequently described We’wha as “the most intelligent person in the Pueblo.” In 1886, We’wha made history when they traveled with Stevenson to Washington, D.C. where they met personally with President Grover Cleveland. While there, We’wha gave presentations on Zuni culture and spirituality, participated in numerous cultural demonstrations involving pottery-making and weaving, and was invited to several high society social gatherings. During their visit, We’wha was largely perceived as a cisgender woman, described in The Washington Post as a “Zuni princess” who “was dressed in her aboriginal costume, and wore a headdress of feathers.” In all, We’wha’s visit to D.C. and private audience with the nation’s president was a groundbreaking moment for the representation of Native American culture and enabled We’wha to become a national celebrity of sorts.
Due to their vast proficiency across many mediums, We’wha played a pivotal role in preserving the history, traditions, and knowledge of the Zuni people. They went on to assist the Stevensons with their ethnographic research for the Smithsonian National Museum, elucidating the significance of Zuni artifacts, modeling for photographs to showcase Zuni weaving techniques, and personally contributing crafts to the museum's collections. Despite We’wha’s many contributions as an ambassador for the Zuni people, the U.S. government's efforts to assimilate Indigenous tribes intensified during the late 19th Century, as did its efforts to dismantle Zuni culture and history. The Lhamana in particular came under attack, as representatives from the Bureau of Indian Affairs alongside Christian missionaries pressured Indigenous groups to give up the practice, which did not align with their Eurocentric gender norms. By the 1920s, the Lhamana tradition had nearly disappeared entirely.
In 1896, while participating in the Zuni’s winter solstice Shalako Festival, We’wha suffered a fatal heart attack at the age of 47. Their unexpected death deeply shocked and saddened the Zuni community. According to Matilda Coxe Stevenson, who was present for We'wha’s passing: “We’wha’s death was regarded as a calamity, and the remains lay in state for an hour or more, during which time not only members of the clans to which [they were] allied, but the rain-priests and theurgists and many others, including children, viewed them. When the blanket was finally closed, a fresh outburst of grief was heard, and then all endeavored to suppress their sobs…”
Despite their relatively short time on earth, We’wha has long been regarded as a significant gender variant figure in both Indigenous cultures and American history, especially for their numerous contributions towards preserving Zuni culture. In more recent years, there has been much-renewed interest in We’wha’s life and legacy, with scholars and activists in particular highlighting We’wha’s unique position as an early Two-Spirited individual whose life was well-documented and who left an indelible mark on history. We’wha’s name and legacy now lives on in many ways–the Santa Fe Indian School, for example, which was first founded in 1890 and has played a key role in educating Indigenous youth for over a century, has integrated We’Wha’s story into its curriculum as a way to teach students about the history of the Two-Spirit and LGBTQ+ community in Indigenous culture. Meanwhile, the Zuni Artist Cooperative in New Mexico regularly features work by contemporary artists inspired by We’Wha and their role as a Two-Spirit individual and advocate for social justice. Additionally, the Santa Fe Human Rights Alliance in New Mexico now annually presents the We’Wha Award to individuals who have made significant contributions to the LGBTQ+ community in the state.
Recounting We’wha’s life helps to highlight the rich history of gender and sexual diversity in Indigenous communities, and celebrating their legacy brings awareness to the integral roles that Two-Spirit individuals have played both within their communities and beyond. Additionally, continuing to study individuals like We’wha enhances and broadens our collective understanding of gender and sexual identity, while addressing the historical damage that colonization has wrought in aiming to suppress those who did not fit into any traditional framework.
REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING
Disclaimer: some of the sources may contain triggering material
Amore, Brianna. “The story of We'Wha, the Two-Spirited ambassador of the Zuni tribe.” Woke AF, 2023, May 20. https://wokeaf.substack.com/p/the-story-of-wewha-the-two-spirited
Brandman, Mariana. “We’wha (1849-1896).” National Women’s History Museum, 2021, June. https://www.womenshistory.org/education-resources/biographies/wewha
Coxe Stevenson, Matilda. "The Zuni Indians: Their mythology, esoteric fraternities, and ceremonies." in Twenty-third annual report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, 1901-1902, 3–608. Bureau of American Ethnology, 1905.
Lizarraga, Eva. “The Power of Two Spirits: How We’Wha’s Legacy Lives On.” StMU Research Scholars, 2023, April 4. https://stmuscholars.org/the-power-of-two-spirits-how-wewhas-legacy-lives-on/
Muth, Charlotte. “We'wha Visits the Capital.” Boundary Stones, 2021, July 28. https://boundarystones.weta.org/2021/07/28/wewha-visits-capital
Punchard, Philippa. Gender Pioneers: A Celebration of Transgender, Non-Binary and Intersex Icons. London, Jessica Kingsley Publishers, 2022.
Roscoe, Will. The Zuni-Man Woman. Albuquerque, University of New Mexico Press, 1992.
Smith, Mason. “Dual Essence, Singular Impact: The story of We’wha.” Medium, 2024, February 11. https://aninjusticemag.com/dual-essence-singular-impact-fac68a05ba6b
Swan-Perkins, Samuel White. “5 Two-Spirit Heroes Who Paved the Way for Today's Native LGBTQ+ Community.” KQED, 2018, November 20. https://www.kqed.org/arts/13845330/5-two-spirit-heroes-who-paved-the-way-for-todays-native-lgbtq-community
Whitehead, Joshua. "“Finding We’Wha”: Indigenous Idylls in Queer Young Adult Literature". Queer as Camp: Essays on Summer, Style, and Sexuality, edited by Kenneth B. Kidd and Derritt Mason. New York, Fordham University Press, 2019.